The Sanskrit word tattva (तत्त्व) literally means "that-ness" or "such-ness" - the essential nature or reality of something. In Indian philosophy, tattvas are the fundamental principles, elements, or categories that constitute all of existence. They serve as both a map of reality and a practical guide for spiritual liberation.
Different philosophical traditions enumerate and interpret tattvas in unique ways. While Sāṅkhya identifies 25 tattvas mapping the evolution from consciousness to matter, Kashmir Shaivism expands this to 36, adding transcendent dimensions. Jainism takes an entirely different approach with 7-9 tattvas focused on the soul's karmic journey, while Buddhism doesn't use the tattva framework at all, preferring analysis through skandhas, āyatanas, and dhātus.
Devotional Traditions & Relationship Categories: Major bhakti schools like Viśiṣṭādvaita, Dvaita, Acintya-bhedābheda, and Vīraśaivism focus less on enumerating cosmic principles and more on categorizing relationships—between soul and God, individual and universal consciousness, devotee and beloved. These traditions demonstrate how bhakti (devotion) provides direct paths to liberation that complement analytical approaches.
What unites these diverse approaches is their shared purpose: whether through systematic analysis or devotional surrender, these frameworks are not mere philosophical categories but practical tools for achieving mokṣa (liberation). By understanding how consciousness and matter interact through these principles, or how divine relationships operate through grace and love, practitioners can trace their way back from limitation to freedom, from ignorance to enlightenment.
Methodology Note: This digital humanities project presents a systematic comparative framework based on general knowledge of these philosophical traditions. The content represents analytical categorization and systematic organization rather than direct primary source scholarship. For rigorous academic study, consultation of the original texts listed below is essential.
See how different traditions use their frameworks to achieve liberation
| Tradition | Tattvas | Core Problem (Bandha) | Liberation Method (Sādhana) | Goal (Mokṣa/Mukti) | Key Practice |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Classical Sāṅkhya | 25 | Confusing Puruṣa (consciousness) with Prakṛti (matter) | Viveka-jñāna (discriminative knowledge) between Self and non-Self | Kaivalya Absolute isolation of consciousness |
Analytical meditation on tattvas, sāṅkhya (enumeration) |
| Kashmir Shaivism | 36 | Forgetting one's divine nature through māyā and mala | Pratyabhijñā (recognition) of true identity as Śiva; bhakti through goddess worship | Śivatva Realization as Śiva-consciousness; rasa of divine love |
Śāmbhavopāya, śāktopāya, āṇavopāya; Krama devotion, tantric surrender |
| Yoga (Patañjali) | 26* | Citta-vṛtti (mental fluctuations) obscure draṣṭṛ (seer) | Aṣṭāṅga yoga culminating in samādhi; Īśvara-praṇidhāna (devotion to Īśvara) | Kaivalya Through dhyāna, samādhi, and devotional surrender |
Dhāraṇā → dhyāna → samādhi (saṃyama); bhakti as direct path |
| Śaiva Siddhānta | 36 | Soul bound by āṇava, karma, and māyīya mala | Divine grace (śaktipāta) and ritual purification; bhakti through pāda-pūjā | Śivasāyujya Union with Śiva through devotional surrender (dualistic) |
Dīkṣā, carya, kriyā, yoga, jñāna; devotional service and temple worship |
| Jainism | 7-9 | Jīva covered by karma particles through āsrava | Stop influx (saṃvara) and shed karma (nirjarā) | Mokṣa Pure soul state, kevalajñāna |
Pañca-mahāvrata, tapas, meditation |
| Buddhism | —** | Belief in permanent self (ātman) due to avijjā | Realize anātman through skandha/āyatana/dhātu analysis | Nirvāṇa Extinction of taṇhā and self-view |
Vipassanā, contemplation of anicca, dukkha, anattā |
| Advaita Vedanta | —*** | Superimposition (adhyāsa) on Brahman | Negate false through "neti neti" | Mokṣa Recognition as Brahman |
Śravaṇa, manana, nididhyāsana |
| Viśiṣṭādvaita (Rāmānuja) | 3+**** | Jīva forgets its dependence on Brahman-Viṣṇu | Bhakti through prapatti (surrender) to Nārāyaṇa | Mokṣa Kaivalya as eternal service to Viṣṇu |
Prapatti, śaraṇāgati; temple worship and navadhā bhakti |
| Dvaita (Madhva) | 5+**** | Jīva bound by prakṛti through karma; bhedas (distinctions) are real | Bhakti to Viṣṇu as supreme; study of śāstras | Mokṣa Eternal blissful service in Vaikuṇṭha |
Śravaṇa, kīrtana of Viṣṇu; aparokṣa-jñāna through devotion |
| Acintya-bhedābheda (Caitanya) | ∞**** | Jīva as taṭastha-śakti forgets relationship with Kṛṣṇa | Nāma-saṅkīrtana and rāga-bhakti to Kṛṣṇa | Prema-bhakti Pure love in Goloka; rasa relationships |
Hari-nāma, rāsa-līlā meditation; guru-paramparā |
| Vīraśaivism (Lingāyat) | 6+**** | Jīva separated from Śiva through māyā and karma | Aṣṭāvaraṇa practices; iṣṭaliṅga worship and liṅgācāra | Aikya Union with Śiva; becoming jīvan-mukta |
Guru-liṅga-jangama trinity; kāya, vāca, manas devotion |
* Yoga accepts 25 Sāṅkhya tattvas + Īśvara
** Buddhism uses skandhas, āyatanas, dhātus instead of tattvas
*** Advaita rejects tattva enumeration as ultimately mithyā (unreal)
**** Bhakti traditions focus on relationship categories rather than systematic tattva enumeration:
• Viśiṣṭādvaita: cit, acit, Īśvara (conscious, unconscious, God)
• Dvaita: svatantra, paratantra (independent/dependent) + jīva-jīva-Īśvara bhedas
• Acintya-bhedābheda: Infinite śaktis of Kṛṣṇa (inconceivable simultaneous unity-difference)
• Vīraśaivism: Śiva, jīva, prakṛti, kāla, karma, māyā + aṣṭāvaraṇas
Aviveka - Non-discrimination between Puruṣa and Prakṛti
Study 25 tattvas, develop viveka-jñāna through analysis
Prakṛti withdraws, Puruṣa remains in kaivalya
Āṇava-mala + 5 kañcukas create limited identity
36 tattvas reveal how Śiva becomes paśu; bhakti through Krama goddess worship and śaktipāta grace
Pratyabhijñā: "I was always Śiva!" Full pūrṇatā
Citta-vṛtti (mental modifications) veil the draṣṭṛ
Yogaś citta-vṛtti-nirodhaḥ through 8 limbs; Īśvara-praṇidhāna as direct devotional path
Tadā draṣṭuḥ svarūpe 'vasthānam - Seer abides in true nature
Sakkāya-diṭṭhi (self-view) due to not seeing dharmas
Analyze experience into khandhas, āyatanas, dhātus
Taṇhākkhaya - extinction of craving, nibbāna
Āsrava (influx) brings karma particles to jīva
Saṃvara stops influx, nirjarā sheds old karma
Kevalajñāna - omniscience, siddhatva
Select a tradition below to see specific practices and detailed frameworks - both analytical and devotional approaches
The Sāṅkhya system enumerates 25 tattvas to help practitioners discriminate between consciousness (Puruṣa) and matter (Prakṛti).
Practice: Contemplate each tattva to understand what you are NOT. Through systematic negation, realize yourself as pure Puruṣa.
Kashmir Shaivism expands to 36 tattvas, adding 11 transcendent principles above the Sāṅkhya framework.
Practice: Through pratyabhijñā (recognition), realize that all 36 tattvas are your own manifestation as Śiva.
Patañjali's Yoga accepts the 25 Sāṅkhya tattvas and adds Īśvara as the 26th principle.
Practice: Progress through the eight limbs, using tattvas as objects of meditation in dhāraṇā, to achieve samādhi and ultimate kaivalya.
Jainism's 7-9 tattvas uniquely map the soul's journey from bondage to liberation.
Some add: 8. Puṇya (merit) and 9. Pāpa (demerit)
Practice: Follow the five great vows, practice austerities, and meditation to stop āsrava and achieve nirjarā.
Buddhism doesn't use tattvas but analyzes experience through skandhas, āyatanas, and dhātus.
The Three Marks of Existence:
Practice: Through vipassanā meditation, see all phenomena as marked by the three characteristics, leading to dispassion and liberation.
Rāmānuja's Viśiṣṭādvaita focuses on three fundamental categories and the relationship between soul and God.
Practice: Through prapatti (surrender) and śaraṇāgati, realize your eternal relationship as body-soul with Nārāyaṇa.
Madhva's Dvaita emphasizes five fundamental distinctions (pañca-bheda) and devotional study of śāstras.
Practice: Through bhakti combined with aparokṣa-jñāna (direct knowledge) achieved via śāstra study and Viṣṇu worship.
Caitanya's tradition emphasizes inconceivable simultaneous unity-difference and the cultivation of rasa relationships with Kṛṣṇa.
Practice: Through nāma-saṅkīrtana and rāga-bhakti, develop prema (pure love) for Kṛṣṇa in one of the five primary rasas.
The Lingāyat tradition emphasizes the guru-liṅga-jangama trinity and the aṣṭāvaraṇa (eight coverings) system.
Practice: Through kāya (body), vāca (speech), and manas (mind) devotion to the guru-liṅga-jangama trinity, achieve aikya (union) with Śiva.
Yoga vs Sāṅkhya: While both aim for kaivalya, Yoga's path is through samādhi (absorption) achieved via the eight limbs, especially dhyāna (meditation). Sāṅkhya relies primarily on discriminative knowledge. As the Yoga Sūtra states: "yogaś citta-vṛtti-nirodhaḥ" - yoga is the cessation of mental fluctuations.
Buddhist Analysis: Buddhism doesn't use tattvas but rather analyzes experience through pañca-khandha (five aggregates), dvādaśāyatana (twelve sense bases), and aṭṭhārasa dhātu (eighteen elements). The goal is seeing the three marks: anicca (impermanence), dukkha (suffering), anattā (non-self).
Kashmir Shaivism Schools: The Krama school emphasizes sequential cosmic cycles and goddess worship (kālī-krama). Kaula focuses on the heart (hṛdaya) as the center. Spanda sees tattvas as vibrations of consciousness. Pratyabhijñā provides the philosophical framework unifying all approaches.
Jain Tattvas - Unique Approach: Unlike other systems where tattvas are cosmological categories, Jain tattvas map the soul's karmic journey. Uniquely, mokṣa itself is counted as a tattva in Jainism - it's not just the goal but a fundamental principle/reality. The 7 core tattvas are: jīva (soul), ajīva (non-soul), āsrava (influx), bandha (bondage), saṃvara (stoppage), nirjarā (shedding), and mokṣa (liberation). Some traditions add puṇya (merit) and pāpa (demerit) for 9 total.
| pratyabhijñā | प्रत्यभिज्ञा | recognition of one's divine nature |
| śaktipāta | शक्तिपात | descent of divine grace |
| kañcuka | कञ्चुक | limiting sheath/covering |
| āṇava-mala | आणवमल | impurity of limitation |
| śāmbhavopāya | शाम्भवोपाय | divine means (direct path) |
| śāktopāya | शाक्तोपाय | empowered means |
| āṇavopāya | आणवोपाय | individual means |
| spanda | स्पन्द | divine vibration/pulsation |
| paśu | पशु | bound soul |
| pūrṇatā | पूर्णता | fullness/completeness |
| puruṣa | पुरुष | pure consciousness |
| prakṛti | प्रकृति | primordial matter |
| viveka | विवेक | discrimination |
| kaivalya | कैवल्य | absolute isolation/liberation |
| aviveka | अविवेक | non-discrimination |
| guṇa | गुण | quality (sattva, rajas, tamas) |
| mahat/buddhi | महत्/बुद्धि | cosmic intelligence |
| ahaṃkāra | अहंकार | ego-principle |
| tanmātra | तन्मात्र | subtle element |
| bhūta | भूत | gross element |
| citta-vṛtti | चित्तवृत्ति | mental modifications |
| nirodha | निरोध | cessation/restraint |
| draṣṭṛ | द्रष्टृ | the seer/witness |
| aṣṭāṅga | अष्टाङ्ग | eight limbs |
| dhāraṇā | धारणा | concentration |
| dhyāna | ध्यान | meditation |
| samādhi | समाधि | absorption |
| saṃyama | संयम | perfect control (dhāraṇā+dhyāna+samādhi) |
| asamprajñāta | असंप्रज्ञात | without cognition/seedless |
| īśvara | ईश्वर | special puruṣa/lord |
| skandha/khandha | स्कन्ध/खन्ध | aggregate |
| āyatana | आयतन | sense base |
| dhātu | धातु | element |
| anattā/anātman | अनत्ता/अनात्मन् | non-self |
| anicca/anitya | अनिच्च/अनित्य | impermanence |
| dukkha/duḥkha | दुक्ख/दुःख | suffering/unsatisfactoriness |
| nibbāna/nirvāṇa | निब्बान/निर्वाण | extinction/liberation |
| vipassanā | विपस्सना | insight meditation |
| sakkāya-diṭṭhi | सक्कायदिट्ठि | personality view |
| taṇhā/tṛṣṇā | तण्हा/तृष्णा | craving/thirst |
| jīva | जीव | soul/life |
| ajīva | अजीव | non-soul/matter |
| āsrava | आस्रव | karmic influx |
| bandha | बन्ध | bondage |
| saṃvara | संवर | stoppage of karmic influx |
| nirjarā | निर्जरा | shedding of karma |
| mokṣa | मोक्ष | liberation |
| kevalajñāna | केवलज्ञान | omniscience |
| pañca-mahāvrata | पञ्चमहाव्रत | five great vows |
| tapas | तपस् | austerity |
| tattva | तत्त्व | principle/reality/thatness |
| mokṣa/mukti | मोक्ष/मुक्ति | liberation/freedom |
| sādhana | साधन | spiritual practice |
| jñāna | ज्ञान | knowledge/wisdom |
| karma | कर्म | action/deed/causation |
| māyā | माया | illusion/creative power |
| brahman | ब्रह्मन् | absolute reality |
| ātman | आत्मन् | self/soul |
| śiva | शिव | auspicious one/absolute consciousness |
| śakti | शक्ति | power/divine energy |